Proving Establish Liability For Each Offence Essay Example for Free

Proving Establish Liability For Each Offence Essay Archie is employed to protect the pheasants on Lord Melchetts estate from poachers. On day, from a distance he sees Liam and Craig on the estate and, knowing them to be poachers, he decides to rid himself of the problem for all time and fires his shotgun at them. Both Liam and Craig are only wounded, however, but do need to be taken to hospital for treatment. On the way to the hospital, the brakes on the ambulance fail, it leaves the road and overturns on a bend and Liam dies in the accident. With reference to the case situation above, discuss, using decided cases to support you arguments: a) The offences, if any, with which Archie could be charged and what the prosecution would need to prove to establish liability for each offence; (20) b) And whether you think Archie would be convicted of any offence. (5) a. In relation to the death of Liam, there is the possibility that Archie would be charged under homicide. Archie carried out the apt actus reus of homicide, whereby he has committed an unlawful killing in the Queens peace in the county of the realm and death occurs within 1 year and 1 day. Although Liam died only in the accident, the main cause for his death was Archie shooting at him. As such, Archie has provided for the cause in fact, according to the but-for test, where if but-for Archie, Liam would not have died. Contrary to R v. White, where the defendants mother died not from his poisoned drink but from a heart attack, Archie caused Liams death. Furthermore, Archie also undertakes the cause in law, as Liams wound is both substantive and operative. This is because it was Archies action that caused the injury (substantive) and this injury was still present at the time of Liams death (operative), as in R v. Malcherek Steel, where it was held that original injuries were still an operative cause of victims death. However, it may be argued that a Novus Actus Intervenis, an intervening event, caused Liams death and that Archie is not the main cause. This is only partially true, as the ambulances break failure was the last event of the chain of causation and causing Liams death. Yet, Archie can still be held liable if it can be established that there was a break in the chain of causation, however, there is none. Thus, the ambulance accident was merely a negligent contribution, as in R v. Benge, and Archies act is the cause of Liams death. According to the mens rea of murder, proof of intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm must be shown, as established in R v. Moloney, holding that intention may be inferred from the defendants foresight of consequences. Here, the charge will depend on Archies intention, which might be deduced from the words that he muttered: rid himself of the problem for all time. As such, Archie knew the consequences of his actions, and had an intention to carry it out. Yet if this is the case, it must also be considered why Archie didnt actually carry out his apparent intention, to rid himself of the problem for all time, as he did not actually get rid of (ie. kill) them. However, if this is not the case, it can be said that Archies intention can be found if he foresaw death or GBH as a virtually certain consequence, as in R v. Woollin. It is also not known where and the number of times Archie shot at Liam and Craig, as this would confer an indication of any considerable intention. If Archies shooting was limited, perhaps one or two in the leg, then it can be said he had no intention to kill, but just an intention to frighten. If he only had an intention to frighten, then his act is already an unlawful act in itself, as it is dangerous and is foreseeable to cause harm. This is true with Archie, and he also had the intention to commit the unlawful act, as in R v. Lamb, where the defendant did not have the mens rea to kill, but only to shoot the gun. Archies act was also dangerous, likewise in R v. Church where it was held that dangerous would mean a reasonable man realizing the risk of creating some harm. In DPP v. Newbury Jones, it is said that if the accused intentionally commits a dangerous and unlawful act, causing harm or incidentally, the death, of another, he is then guilty of constructive murder. Therefore, in relation to Liams death, Archie can be liable for constructive manslaughter. In relation to the injuries sustained by Craig, there is the possibility that Archie will be charged under Section 20 of the Offences Against Persons Act 1861. The actus reus required here is merely wounding, as defined in JJC v. Eisenhower as breaking of the skin(skin here meaning any surface of the human body) or inflicting grievous bodily harm. The mens rea necessary includes a malicious intention and a foresight of physical harm. This foresight must involve the possibility of some physical harm to a person, as in R v. Mowatt. Archie, thus fulfills both the actus reus and mens rea for S20 of the OAPA. However, Archie may also be charged under Section 47 and Section 42. Under S47, Craig has to be seen to have sustained actual bodily harm, defined in R v. Miller as any harm calculated to interfere with persons health and comfort. Under S42, Archie has to be seen to put another person in fear of immediate personal violence and has touched another without their consent. If this can be established, Archie would be liable for Section 20 (Offence involving wounding/GBH), Section 47 (Common assault, battery GBH) and Section 42 (Assault battery) of the Offences Against Persons Act 1861. b. In the case of Liams death, Archie would be charged for murder. However, this is rather difficult to prove, as the mens rea required for murder involves proof of intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm as established in R v. Moloney. Thus, he would not be convicted of murder, but rather involuntary manslaughter, with constructive liability. As for Craigs injuries, Archie would be charged under Section 20 of the OAPA. Further charges might include Sections 47 and 42. The conviction under Section 20 is undeniable, but for Section 47 and 42, it is only highly plausible.

A Culturally Competent Psychologist Social Work Essay

A Culturally Competent Psychologist Social Work Essay Culture as a construct is difficult to define. Definitions of culture often refer to a set of contexts, specifically man-made elements of the environment (e.g., institutions, values, and traditions), that form a part of the collective experience among members of a society or group and that are also trans-generational as a consequence of social learning (Betancourt Lopez 1993). Some psychologists consider ethnoculturalism as the fourth force in psychotherapy (Betancourt Lopez 1993, p.629). Implicit in this is the notion that culture is a factor in influencing behaviour. To be a culturally competent psychologist, therefore, it is important to plan and implement psychological practice and research that respects group identities, local communities, indigenous values, and national and cultural differences. Cultural competence is not about being politically correct. Cultural competence has real world consequences for individuals that, in relation to psychology, are typically vulnerable or in need. The national enquiry into the stolen generations, where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were removed from their families (Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1997), for example, inferred that health workers participated in the calculated effort to assimilate out of existence indigenous individuals and cultures, an example of genocide. This apparent lack of cultural competence by health workers, psychologists among them, has contributed negatively to indigenous individuals psychological and physical health through mourning the loss of culture (Eisenbruch 1991), stress associated with interacting with a foreign culture (Westerman 2004), and trans-generational abuse (Atkinson 2002). Cross-cultural psychology endeavours to explicitly acknowledge the need for cross cultural awareness and competence in the discipline of psychology. Cross-cultural psychology is the systematic study of relationships between the cultural context of human development and the behaviors that become established in the repertoire of individuals growing up in a particular culture (Berry, Poortinga Pandey 1997, p.x). The goals for cross-cultural psychology include investigating the generalizability of existing theory and research results, investigating other cultures in order to identify unique cultural experiences in behaviour, and the integration of this research to establish a more universal discipline of psychology (Berry, Poortinga, Segall Dasen 2002). An investigation into behaviour as it occurs in another culture reduces ethnocentrism (Betancourt Lopez 1993) and enhances the discipline of psychology. Cross cultural research findings have observed that cultural explanations of mental illness held by psychologists are strongly correlated with shaping their response to individuals with affective problems and the subsequent course of those problems (Jenkins 1988). Also, in relation to affective problems, an individuals immediate social environment appears crucial to its sequence and prognosis (Harding, Zubin Strauss 1992). Finally, findings also suggest that members of minority groups defined by race and ethnicity are vulnerable to patterns of misdiagnosis due to a bias by clinicians to over-pathologize their problems (Good 1992). In the United States, for example, psychologists, regardless of race, have been found to diagnose more severely, and attribute more violence, dishonesty, and dangerousness to, patients that are black (Loring Powell 1988). Policy clearly has a role to play. The American Psychological Association (APA), often the policy guide for the Australian Psychological Society (APS), has made the inclusion of course components that pertain to multicultural issues, encouraging cultural competence, compulsory across training (American Psychological Association 2011) although in reality they are not compulsory as core or primary courses (Hills Strozier 1992). Also, cultural competency is not mandatorily assessed in relation to gaining registration in the United States (Sue 1998) and what assessment occurs during training differs from that done in relation to other training areas (Altmaier 1993). In addition to training, the APA Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs (1993) has published guidelines to assist with the provision of culturally aware psychological services for the practising psychologist. Training and practice constitute the areas upon which cultural competence policies are defined, as they are for Australian psychologists. To be registered as a psychologist in Australia one must complete an Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC) accredited and Psychology Board of Australia approved course (Australian Psychology Accreditation Council 2011). APAC is the accreditation authority responsible for accrediting education providers and programs of study for the psychology profession (APAC 2011) whilst the Psychology Board of Australia functions as a subsidiary of the federal governments Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) (Psychology Board of Australia 2011). Finally, the APS, like the APA in the United States, is a voluntary organization that endeavours to represent psychology and psychologists in Australia. Despite this, the Psychology Board of Australia has adopted the APS Code of Ethics (2007) for the profession (Psychology Board of Australia 2011). Ethnoculturalism is recognized as important to the discipline of psychology and, as such, APAC (2010) has nested cultural competency within training for the discipline. Courses must encourage knowledge and understanding of: intercultural diversity and indigenous psychology; how the science and practice of psychology is influenced by social, historical, professional, and cultural contexts; the cultural bases of behaviour and organisational systems; issues for minority or marginalised groups; limitations of psychological tests with particular reference to cultural issues; and interpersonal skills in communicating effectively with clients, other psychologists, other professionals, the community, individuals, small groups, and agencies from varied cultural, ethnic, religious, social, and political backgrounds (APAC 2010). Training eventually gives way to practice. The APS Code of Ethics (2007) references ethnoculturalism in a more general way through three general ethical principles. The APS Code of Ethics (2007) is based on the respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples; propriety; and integrity. In the first general principle, respect for the rights and dignity of people and peoples, (APS Code of Ethics 2007) psychologists are encouraged to have positive regard for diversity and uniqueness of individuals and their right to linguistically and culturally appropriate services. Acknowledging the particular needs of indigenous Australians, the APS has also published guidelines for the provision of psychological services for, and the conduct of psychological research with, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander individuals (APS 2003b). Whilst there are no other specific ethnocultural guidelines, there are guidelines for other groups such as women (APS 2003a), and groups defined by sexual orientation (APS 2000). The Code of Ethics frames practice. Essentially there are three types of psychologists; clinical psychologists, applied psychologists, and research psychologists (Nairne 2009). Clinical psychologists diagnose and treat psychological problems; applied psychologists extend psychological principles to practical, non-clinical, problems; and research psychologists conduct research to elucidate essential principles of behaviour and cognizance (Nairne 2009). Whilst registered psychologists can arguably do little in regards to their initial training content, ongoing professional development and supervision are two areas where cultural competency can actively be developed and maintained. In addition to this, if involved in research, a culturally competent approach could be nested within it. So, it is in the areas of professional development, supervision, and research where the cultural competence of the practicing psychologist may be developed and honed. Continuing professional development (CPD) is a requirement for annual renewal of psychology registration (Psychology Board of Australia 2011). Identifying professional development to enhance cultural competence initially requires an assessment by the psychologist of their needs in relation to culturally competent awareness, knowledge, and skills (Pedersen 2011). Once an assessment is made, the psychologist can actively address deficits. CPD can then be identified that further develops an awareness that culturally learned assumptions exist and interact with those of a patient; develops meaningful information and insight into the patients unique cultural context; and finally develops a skill set that can facilitate patient change (Pedersen 2011). Early career psychologists may find the identification of necessary CPD daunting. Supervision, then, may assist in accurately identifying CPD needs in relation to cultural competency. Supervision is mandatory for psychologists (Psychology Board of Australia 2011) and can play an integral role in regards to cultural competency skill acquisition and expertise (Sue Sue 2008). Supervision may be defined as a process whereby a more experienced clinician mentors or imparts specialist knowledge to a clinician, or group of clinicians, less experienced (Bernard Goodyear 2004). Formative and summative assessment of cultural competency can assess the degree of supervisee cultural competency and guide further cultural competency training (Hays 2008). A supervisor, therefore, needs to encourage the development of cultural awareness, the reduction of bias, and developing strategic interventions in relation to future patients (Sue Sue 2008). Psychologists need to integrate cultural competence into their professional undertakings in recognition of the increasing diversity of their social context (Sue Sue 2008). For applied and clinical psychologists, interactions with patients are central to their provision of service. In relation to this patient / psychologist interaction, Pedersens (2011) Triad Training Model underscores the need for cultural competency and, by extension, its development through supervision and CPD. Pedersen (2011) suggests that when two individuals communicate there are actually three conversations occurring simultaneously. There is the uttered exchange; the psychologists own internal dialogue; and finally the internal dialogue of the patient (Pederson 2011). Cultural competency is imperative, according to Pederson (2011), as the greater the cultural difference between the psychologist and patient, the less likely the psychologist will accurately hear the internal dialogue, positive and negative messages, of the culturally different patient. Research too, then, needs to become more sophisticated, expanding the utility and generalizability of any findings. Psychological research, in regards cultural competency, is lacking in three areas: diversity amongst researchers; appropriate ethnocultural studies; and culturally appropriate assessment instruments (Gil Bob 1999). Firstly, the lack of diversity may be addressed by actively recruiting students from diverse backgrounds as co-researchers (Casas Thompson 1991) as well as striving for a culturally diverse research team matched to that cultural group being investigated (Atkinson, 1993). Secondly, cultural groups identified for research should be engaged in the development of research questions and that subsequent research should be monitored by members of these groups for community relevance and general quality (Casas Thompson 1991). Finally, assessment selection should consider cultural orientation, particularly as instruments are often Eurocentric (Dana 1996), and that any translations be accurately assessed in regards to their meaning (Brislin 1993). CPD, supervision, and research are three areas that the psychologist can actively develop cultural competence. The development of cultural competency is not a finite exercise but, rather, a lifelong process of learning. Being a culturally competent psychologist encourages research that is both sophisticated and more generalizable, and relationships between psychologist and patient that are more explicitly anchored in a cultural context, enhancing therapeutic outcomes in a wider range of therapeutic settings. To be a culturally competent psychologist, therefore, it is important to plan and implement psychological practice and research that respects group identities, local communities, indigenous values, and national and cultural differences.

The impact of SATs

The impact of SATs Special Study: What impact do Standard Attainment Tests (SATs) have on the education of primary school children in the final year of each Key Stage? Standard Attainment Tests (SATs) have been an integral part of summative assessment in primary education since their introduction in the 1990s. These tests, occurring at the end of each of the first two Key Stages, usually take place in May, when Year Two children sit tests in English and Maths, and Year Six children are tested in English, Maths and Science. The rationale for these tests was that the results should, first, genuinely give information about how children were doing in the National Curriculum (Sainsbury and Sizmur, 1996). Secondly, these assessments should provide an authentic reflection of the kinds of work children have to do in following the curriculum (Sainsbury and Sizmur, 1996). However, from the outset, SATs have attracted considerable criticism in the media, not only from teachers and parents, but also from education researchers and government officials (Yarker, 2003). This criticism stems from the notion that these groups do not believe that either part of the above rationale is being ideologically or practically adhered to. In the first instance, they argue that the most important reason for collating the test results is not to determine individual childrens attainment levels, but instead to compare the overall attainment of one school with others. In the second instance, they argue that the tests, and their implem entation, do not accurately reflect the range of educational tasks undertaken by children in school: by posing a series of predominantly closed questions under strict, timed test conditions, all the test results indicate is a level of the childrens competence at taking tests, and not their ability in the subject in question. According to Wintle and Harrison (1999), these test results are the most significant performance indicator used by teachers, inspectors, parents and other professionals. However, one major component group is missing from this statement: the children taking the tests. It is crucial to examine the issues surrounding the impact that SATs have on these children, so that an overall view of the situation can be established. These issues can be split into three broad categories. Firstly, it is important to consider how and why childrens learning is affected by SATs. Secondly, childrens attitudes, both towards this aspect of their schooling and likewise to the test itself, need to be discussed and analysed. Finally, it is vital to examine the emotional effects SATs have on children, and the causes and consequences of these effects. One of the principal effects on childrens learning, according to research by Connors et al (2009), is the issue of children being taught to the test in the months and weeks preceding the eventual sitting of the SATs. This involves classroom activities such as children learning how to answer typical SATs questions and the taking of practice tests, in addition to the delivery of the National Curriculum in the relevant subjects. In some respects, this can be beneficial to children. For example, they should be well prepared for the type of questions that will be posed in the SATs; it might be concluded from this that they will gain higher marks. Moreover, it may positively impact on childrens behaviour, as argued by Hall et al (2004), where the taking of practice tests improves childrens concentration and greatly reduces classroom disruption, as they regularly need to display these attributes under test conditions. There are, however, other respects in which the methodical approach of teaching to the test may be disadvantageous to childrens learning. For instance, due to the importance of SATs for summative assessment purposes, teachers feel personally accountable for their pupils results (Connors et al, 2009). This is for two main reasons: firstly, they are responsible for the academic progress of the children in their class, and therefore feel that whatever marks these children achieve in their SATs reflect their competence as practitioners. Secondly, on a broader scale, they also feel pressurised into teaching to the test in order to maintain or improve the schools position in the SATs league tables, and also to meet national targets. This can have a negative impact on childrens learning as, during these heavily SATs-focused lessons, children are taught examination technique rather than developing the knowledge and skills the test is designed to assess (Hall et al, 2004). This limits a holis tic approach to their education, as this teaching method revolves around memory and repetition, rather than skills and application. Furthermore, because teachers are limited as to how far they can deviate from the curriculum, the scope for creativity in these lessons is greatly reduced. Another way in which SATs impact upon childrens learning concerns the fact that an increasing percentage of the school timetable is being dedicated to the teaching of the SATs subjects, according to research by Webb (2006). Although English, Maths and Science, due to their long-established importance across all Key Stages, have always featured prominently in the school schedule, the danger exists that a disproportionate amount of the school week will be spent on the teaching and learning of these subjects, primarily caused by the teachers feeling of personal accountability (Connors et al, 2009). Consequently, the rest of the primary curriculum subjects, especially art, music and physical education (Webb, 2006) may not have as much time devoted to them. This would adversely affect the childrens right to receiving a broad and well-balanced primary school curriculum. Taking this potential curricular imbalance a stage further, some schools organise weekend and after-school SATs clubs, an d some parents enlist private tutors for extra SATs coaching sessions (Byrne and McGavin, 2004). On a positive note, these courses of action may help to increase childrens confidence and competence in the target subjects. However, these constant levels of coaching, both during and after school hours, may change childrens attitudes towards SATs-orientated teaching and learning, and their eventual participation in the tests themselves. According to research by Connors et al (2009), some children, especially those taking the Key Stage Two SATs, regard both the prior preparation and the test itself to be ways of challenging themselves at school. This sense of challenge can increase childrens motivation and application levels in the classroom (Drummond, 2003), as children try to meet the demands of an increasing, more intense academic workload, and acquire new knowledge and skills. What is unclear, however, is whether these increased motivation and application levels are mirrored in non-SATs subjects. Another positive aspect of the challenge of SATs is that many children associate hard work with higher marks (Webb, 2006), which can be an additional motivational factor. Although it could be argued that aptitude, rather than attitude, contributes to higher levels of achievement, it is nevertheless important to encourage this positive thinking. This idea is extended on a social level by Byrne and McGavin (2004), who argu e that the achievement of higher marks can add a competitive element to educational proceedings, as children try to achieve more highly than their peers do. However, it is important to note that this has the potential to cause emotional distress to the child who does not perform as well as others, even if the competition is meant to be friendly and light-hearted. In contrast, many children have a much more negative attitude towards SATs and the teaching and learning associated with it. Referring back to the challenge of SATs, according to research by Hall et al (2004), some children, rather than viewing them as a challenge to be overcome, regard them instead as either a bridge too far or, even worse, a complete waste of time. In the case of these children, these negative attitudes may be caused by a variety of factors. For example, they may be lower achievers who find the increased intensity of, and the amount of time devoted to, SATs preparation difficult to cope with. This can cause them to become disillusioned about the SATs, which, in turn, can have an adverse affect on their behaviour and motivation levels. At Key Stage Two level, many schools place children into ability groups in the SATs subjects (Webb, 2006); this can alleviate this problem to a certain extent, as their individual learning needs can be more appropriately catered for. Nevertheless, it could be argued that, although the level and pace of such learning would be more appropriate for lower achieving children, this solution does not directly address these childrens possible concerns about the amount of time allocated to the SATs subjects. A further concern for lower achieving children, according to Yarker (2003), is that, if they do not achieve what they consider to be good marks in the tests themselves, they will be labelled as failures. It is, however, important to clarify that these children are never labelled in this way by teachers, but by the children themselves, who are concerned about the effect that SATs results will have on their future, both academically and motivationally. Another factor that may cause children to have a negative attitude towards the SATs is highlighted by Wintle and Harrison (1999), who argue that the concentration on SATs preparation is linear and regimented to such an extent that children no longer have any ownership of it. This can have a distinct attitudinal effect on the children. They may become disillusioned by the fact that, because of the focus on SATs work, they are simply undertaking activities and tasks for the sake of knowing how to do them for SATs purposes, rather than for the benefit of their own learning. Cullingford (2006) echoes this view, stating that, with regard to SATs preparation, children perceive their task in school as not so much to think as to guess what it is that the teachers want. Moreover, further research conducted by Cullingford (2006) suggests that many children, particularly those at Key Stage Two level, are surprisingly aware of the importance of SATs and even the significance of league tables. It can therefore be argued that they consider SATs to be one of the most, if not the most crucial aspect of their schooling during the final year of each Key Stage. This attitude can have a positive or adverse effect on their commitment to the SATs and the preparation for them; again, this depends on the attitude and aptitude of individual children. This surprisingly common awareness of the importance of both the SATs and the results they achieve in them is one way in which children can become not only attitudinally affected, but also emotionally affected by them. In this instance, because of the strong focus on preparing for the tests, children may feel pressurised, and in many cases excessively so, for two main reasons. Firstly, according to a study by Connors et al (2009), some children put themselves under pressure to perform well because they have worrisome thoughts and concerns about the consequences of failure if they do not. It could be argued that this level of worry should have no place in the mind of a child of primary school age, although it does further illustrate the importance the children place on SATs. Secondly, many children realise that SATs results are important to their teachers; consequently, the children also perceive them as important (Webb, 2006). This realisation, generally speaking, is a subconscious o ne: the children are not told outright by the teacher that the SATs are important. Instead, the curricular focus on the preparation for the SATs signifies their importance in the childrens minds. Furthermore, if the children respect their teacher (the way they should in an ideal situation), then they may feel under pressure to perform well in the SATs to attempt to prove that their teacher has taught them well, thus enhancing their reputation. One final important point about this kind of pressure is that it may not necessarily have a negative effect on all children; conversely, some children may thrive on it, and work harder and achieve higher as a consequence. It can be argued that any increase in pressure will increase the likelihood of stress and anxiety, particularly in the case of children, who will not have had the experience of coping with such pressure increases at this stage of their lives. According to Yarker (2003), children, particularly at Key Stage One level, become stressed through constant teaching to the test and test practice, due to both its intensity, and its implementation to the apparent exclusion of the rest of the curriculum. However, Byrne and McGavin (2004), whilst acknowledging the stress that this may cause to children, argue that it is the thought of, and the participation in, the tests themselves that cause the highest levels of stress and anxiety in children. In certain severe cases, research has even discovered a direct link between these SATs related stress levels that can be detrimental to the childs health and their life outside school, such as loss of sleep (Yarker, 2003), loss of appetite (Hall et al, 20 04) and headaches (Connors et al, 2009). With regard to childrens emotions about the prospect of being formally tested, some children were excited and were looking forward to taking the tests, according to a survey by Connors et al (2009). A possible reason for this could be the fact that they may regard the tests as the culmination of their hard work, and they offer them the chance to put their newly acquired skills and knowledge into practice. They can prove to themselves and to their teachers that they have learnt what the tests require them to learn. In contrast, other children can display signs of nervousness and apprehension during the period immediately prior to taking the tests (Connors et al, 2009). Reasons for this could include the fear of getting a poor result, which may not only adversely affect their self-esteem, but may also make the child think that their teacher (and possibly their parents and their peers) will think less of them as a result. They may also worry that they have not worked hard enough, or not achieved enough in the target subjects to obtain the level that they want to achieve. Furthermore, children can often have problems during the taking of the test itself (Byrne and McGavin, 2004), not only for the aforementioned reasons, but also due to other factors. For instance, many children, particularly at Key Stage One level, may find it difficult to formulate answers and recall previous learning and knowledge under the pressure of timed test conditions. Furthermore, if the child is not in a prepared, focused frame of mind before the test starts, this can affect their performance on the day, which could lead to a lower, potentially misleading test result. In conclusion, it is clear from the evidence that primary schools take the process of preparing children for the SATs tests very seriously. However, the way in which this issue is approached depends on the individual school concerned, and the ways in which they implement their teaching and classroom procedures. One thing remains constant, though. Regardless of the methods used, and the reasoning behind them, SATs will have an academic, attitudinal and emotional impact on childrens education in the final year of each Key Stage. Although the evidence available has predominantly shown a bias towards SATs having a negative impact in these respects, they can have a positive impact under the right physical and mental conditions. In the same way that the approach to SATs depends on the individual school, the level and the inclination of the impact depends on the individual child, and their individual level of aptitude, dedication, self-belief and resolve. Reference List / Bibliography Byrne, K. McGavin, H. (2004) A parents guide to primary school. London: Continuum Connors, L. et al (2009) Causes and consequences of test anxiety in Key Stage 2 pupils: the mediational role of emotional resilience. In: British Educational Research Association Annual Conference. University of Manchester, 2-5 September 2009. Cullingford, C. (2006) Pupils views of the school experience. In Webb, R. (ed) Changing teaching and learning in the primary school. Maidenhead: Open University Press Drummond, M. J. (2003) Assessing childrens learning. London: David Fulton Fielding, S. et al (1999) The (mis)use of SATs to examine gender and achievement at Key Stage 2. Curriculum Journal, 10 (2), pp. 169-187 Gipps, C. V. (2002) Beyond testing: towards a theory of educational assessment. London: Routledge Falmer Green, C. et al (2001) Children put the national tests to the test. Education 3-13, 29 (3), pp. 39-42 Hall, K. et al (2004) SATurated models of pupildom: assessment and inclusion/exclusion. British Educational Research Journal, 30 (6), pp. 801-817 Headington, R. (2003) Monitoring, assessment, recording, reporting and accountability: meeting the standards. London: David Fulton Sainsbury, M. Sizmur, S. (1996) Curriculum-based assessment and the search for authenticity. In Sainsbury, M. (ed) SATs the inside story: the development of the first national assessments for seven-year-olds, 1989-1995. Slough: NFER Tennent, W. et al (2008) Assessing reading at Key Stage 2: SATs as measures of childrens inferential abilities. British Educational Research Journal, 34 (4), pp.431-446 Webb, R. (2006) Teachers perspectives on teaching and learning in a performativity centre. In Webb, R. (ed) Changing teaching and learning in the primary school. Maidenhead: Open University Press Whetton, C. (2009) A brief history of a testing time: national curriculum assessment in England 1989-2008. Education Research, 51 (2), pp. 137-159 Wintle, M. Harrison, M. (1999) Coordinating assessment practice across the primary school. London: Falmer Press Yarker, P. (2003) The hours of folly: settling accounts with SATs. Forum, 45 (3), pp. 98-101

Biological Basis Of Behavior Essay -- Science Biology Biological Essay

Biological Basis Of Behavior Primary Behaviors of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is defined as a "devastating psychotic disorder that may involve characteristic disturbances in thinking (delusions), perception (hallucinations), speech, emotions, and behavior (Durand and Barlow 443). This disorder affects nearly 2.5 million people. The symptoms of schizophrenia are usually divided into two categories, positive and negative. The positive symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or thinking, grossly disorganized behavior, and catatonic behaviors, which means that you suffer from motor immobility (schizophrenia.com). Delusions are defined as a strong disorder of thought and false beliefs of reality. There are five categories of delusions. The first is persecutory in which a person believes they are being attacked, harassed or conspired against. For example, a person with persecutory delusions may think that the government is spying on them. The second category is grandiose delusions, which are defined as an exaggerated sense of importance, power, and identity. For example, a person may feel that they receive special powers from God which gives them the ability to control things. The third category is being controlled. This category of delusions involves thoughts and feelings imposed from the outside. This is sometimes referred to as "thought insertion." A person with this type of delusion may feel that they are being controlled by the devil or by a curse. The fourth category is somatic delusions. These are defined as having false beliefs about bodily functions such as having AIDS or being pregnant for three years. The last category is j... ... ended up in the psychiatric ward. He got on medicine but still felt like a "deer in the headlights." He had a hard time keeping up with school and then his medicine failed and he was hospitalized again. After the second hospitalization his life turned around. He ended up finishing school with a degree in Economics. He was also able to hold down several jobs. He has tried every atypical antipsychotic medicine and they seem to be working. People can overcome schizophrenia if they choose to and can succeed in their own way and beat the odds. References Barlow, David H. and Durand, V. Mark. Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth, 2003. Clozaril (clozapine). www.nami.org. 2/23/2005 Dr. Jim Dupree's class notes for Abnormal Psychology Success Stories from People with Schizophrenia. www.schizophrenia.com. 2/23/2005.

European Imperialsim in Africa was Justified :: Politics Government

European Imperialism in Africa was Justified The first Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain. It led to a dramatic increase in factories, therefore a vast amount of manufactured goods. The demand for goods created by the Industrial Revolution helped clear the way for the Age of Imperialism because Great Britain and eventually all of Europe sought after more natural resources and raw materials. Imperialism is the policy in which a stronger country seeks to dominate a less developed country both politically and economically. Although the European imperialism of Africa was exploitive and self seeking, it was justified because it ultimately enhanced the growth and development of the African nations through new laws, government, well ordered finance and freedom form oppression. When the Europeans arrived in Africa, many would of thought that imperialism wasn?t fied because the Europeans were enslaving the Africans. As stated in David Diop's An Anthology of West African Verse, "And in the Conqueror's voice said, 'Boy! A chair, a napkin, a drink.'" Stated blatantly, the "conqueror" is a European, and he is commanding an African to serve him. Forcing Africans into slavery certainly doesn?t justify European imperialism in Africa, however, there are many reasons as to why imperialism actually was justified. One reason, is the fact that the raw materials the Europeans took from Africa were unused. As stated in Lord Frederick Lugard's, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, "Who can deny the right of the hungry people of Europe to utilize the wasted bounties of nature..." Lugard shows that Europe had the right to take raw materials from Africa because they were unused. This means those who argue that European imperialism in Africa was not justified because the Europeans simply took raw materials, are obviously mistaken. Another reason that European imperialism in Africa was justified, is the fact that Europeans did not take over Africa solely for their self interests. As plainly stated in excepts from Lord Carnarvon's records. "...it is certainly not a desire of selfish interests..." Clearly, those who argue that Europeans just wanted to benefit themselves through the imperialism of Africa, are incorrect. Unfortunately, even though European imperialism in Africa was justified, many Africans are still suffering from the effects to this day.

Magnet Status Essay

A Magnet Recognition Program recognizes health care organizations for quality patient care, nursing excellence and innovations in professional nursing practice. Consumers rely on Magnet designation as the ultimate credential for high quality nursing (American Nurses Credentialing Center, 2008). Magnet status is becoming the â€Å"gold standard† for nursing excellence and as more hospitals seek the American Nurses Credentialing Center’s desired Magnet recognition, more hospitals are requiring their nurses to either return to school for their bachelor’s degrees or have a BSN before applying. The Institute of Medicine, Future of Nursing Initiative recommended that organizations should strive to achieve 80% BSN prepared nurses by 2020. Educational criteria for nurse leaders and managers require at least a BSN (Institute of Medicine, 2010). Magnet hospitals are an inspiration for nurses looking for a quality institution in which to practice. This status translates into a hospital that values nurses and promotes excellence. Nurses play a significant role in the whole hospital experience for patients and their families. They are the primary source of care and support during some of the most vulnerable times in a person’s life. Studies show Magnet hospitals have higher percentages of satisfied registered nurses, lower turnover and vacancy, improved clinical outcomes, greater nurse autonomy, and improved patient satisfaction (American Nurses Credentialing Center, 2008). When nurses are happier and more engaged, patients and families are happier. At Magnet hospitals, nurses are able to spend more one-on-one time with their patients providing compassionate care than at most other hospitals. This doesn’t mean that nurses at other hospitals provide poor care, this is not the case at all, but the nurse-to-patient ratios at a Magnet Hospital is more manageable. This allows the nurse to have more time with each patient, instead of running around trying to take care of an excessive amount of patients, it is unrealistic for a nurse to have one-on-one time with so many patients, when she has to do assessments, pass  medication, and everything else that comes up during a shift. Hospitals that achieve Magnet recognition, display it proudly and there is good reason for this. Magnet status does not come easily, it’s a lengthy and costly process. Hospitals must work hard, prove a deep commitment to nursing, and often undergo major organizational change to meet the strict requirements (American Nurses Credentialing Center, 2008). Since Magnet hospitals are designated for four years, Magnet recognition must be maintain. This is an ongoing process in which the organization will repeatedly review and revise its programs. One of the Forces of Magnetism that provides the conceptual framework for the Magnet appraisal process is Quality Improvement . Nurses play a key role in Quality Improvement as they are essential to hospitalized patient care, they spend the most time at the patient’s bedside and are in the best position to affect the care patients receive during a hospital stay. Hospitals face increasing demands to participate in a wide range of quality improvement activities, and they are reliant on nurses to help address these demands (Draper, 2008). Quality Improvement information pressures hospitals not only to participate by reporting, but also to perform well relative to competitors and show improvement. This is often one of the incentives behind hospitals seeking Magnet Program status (Draper, 2008). Another Force of Magnetism is Professional Development. The health care organization values and supports the personal and professional growth and development of staff (American Nurses Credentialing Center, 2008). Yale-New Haven Hospital is continually developing and enforcing quality and safety measures aimed at pre venting and minimizing errors at all levels of the organization. One of the Quality Initiatives is minimizing infections. This is done by maintaining good hand hygiene. Good hand hygiene is an important and effective way to prevent germs being spread in the hospital. Yale-New Haven Hospital, makes sure that sinks, soaps and alcohol-based sanitizers are readily available throughout the hospital for patients, staff and visitors. An audit for hand hygiene performance is done and the information obtained is used to make improvements. Another way to minimize infection is by maintaining isolation precautions in place when necessary, this is to protect patients, staff and visitors. Everyone must follow any precautions listed on the sign outside the patient’s room. Yale-New Haven Hospital has a quality assurance team  that continually monitors and measures performance across the entire Yale New Haven Health system. They evaluate and survey patients and staff at all levels to create hospital â€Å"scorecards.† They also rely on reporting from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and The Joint Commission. Performance reports and scores are circulated to leadership, physicians, nurses, administrators, and other key staff members so they can monitor progress and make informed decisions on where and how improvements should be made. The benefit of this is that when problems are identified, they investigate the causes and adjust practices to prevent the problem from happening again. This helps to maintain a culture of safety and continuous improvement (Yale New Haven Hospital, 2014). After writing this paper, I’ve realized that continuing my education and getting my Baccalaureate degree in nursing, whether mandated or not, will open many doors in my future career as a nurse. Achieving higher educational goals not only serves patients more effectively, it also prepares nurses to be leaders in their profession and to participate not only in direct patient care, but also in policy and governance as a career unfolds. References American Nurses Credentialing Center â€Å"Magnet Recognition Program.† American Nurses Credentialing Center, 2008 available at http://www.nursecredentialing.org/Magnet/ accessed Apr 15, 2014. Draper, DA., Felland, LE., Liebhaber, A. and Melichar, L. (2008, March). The Role of Nurses in Hospital Quality Improvement, available at http://www.hschange.org/CONTENT/972/ accessed April 25, 2014. The Future of Nursing: Focus on Education – Institute of Medicine. (2010, October). Retrieved from http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2010/The-Future-of-Nursing-Leading-Change-Advancing-Health/Report-Brief-Education.aspx/ accessed April 15, 2014 Yale-New Haven Hospital How & Why We Measure Performance. Retrieved from http://www.ynhh.org/patient-information/minimizing_infections.aspx accessed Web. 15 Apr. 2014.

Johnson and Johnson Executive Summary Essay

The $10,000 investment made into Johnson and Johnson is a good investment to have in your portfolio. This is because of the stable nature of Johnson and Johnson and the growth trend of the company. Based on the JNJ 10-Ks for the last 5 years ended Jan. 1, 2012, the revenue trend is growing. Revenues have trended favorably from $61,095 in the year ended Jan. 2007 to $65,030 in the year ended Jan. 1, 2012. The company is also operating efficiently showing the more stable aspect of this investment by keeping costs of goods sold at an average percent of 29.94% for the five years ended Jan. 1, 2012. The company is also well leveraged for growth. A good measure of this leverage is the Debt Ratio, which is a measure of the total liabilities of a company in proportion to the total assets. The Debt Ratio will also expose the risks in the company’s debt-load by revealing the extent of assets that are financed with debt. The debt ratio for JNJ has trended from 2.00 in the year ended Dec. 28, 2008 to 2.01 Jan. 1, 2012 with an increase in the fiscal years ended Jan 2, 2011 and Jan 3 2010 to 2.22 and 2.15, respectively. These ratios show that the company has two assets for every one dollar of a liability the company has thereby showing that the company is financially stable and able to pay the obligations it has. Johnson and Johnson is also able to generate earnings from it’s invested capital. Return on asset (ROA) is a ratio that describes what earnings are generated from invested capital and is often referred to as return on investment. From the years ended Dec. 28, 2008 through Jan 2, 2011, the company has had a consistent ROA percentage of 15.25%, 12.95%, and 12.96%, respectively. The ROA percentage decreased to 8.51% in the year ended Jan. 1, 2012 because of continued additions of assets through acquisitions that will continue to generate growth in the future. Market perception is also a valuable indicator when determining sound investments. The price to earnings ratio is a valuation of a company’s current market share price compared to its per-share earnings. Generally, a higher P/E ratio suggests that an investor can expect higher earnings growth in the future. The price to earnings ratio has increased substantially to 18.53 in the fiscal year ended Jan. 1, 2012 from the 12.75 price to earnings ratio in the year ended Jan. 2, 2011, as shown in the table below. Lastly, most financially secure and stable companies offer dividends to their stockholders. A dividend is a distribution of cash, stock, or property in a portion of a company’s earnings. The cash dividends per share have trended favorably for investors looking to have a return on their investment from $1.62 in the year ended Dec. 28, 2007 to $2.25 for the year ended Jan. 1, 2012. In summary, Johnson and Johnson is continually investing into new consumer, pharmaceutical, and medical device fields which has created a large, well diversified company that is able to stay one step ahead of its competitors thereby creating a strong stable investment option for investors.